Important actors Essay Example for Free

Important actors Essay The study of international relations has paved the way for the inclusion of important actors that contribute to the overall functions of practice in the international arena. In the course of time, actors involve in the practice has constantly been increasing due to the expansion of practice and scope in the area. Thus, there is a need to look into these actors and carefully assess their capabilities in promoting interests in the international arena. One important actor in international relations is the state. The capability of course by the state to formally promote relations with other actors circumvents primarily on its capabilities to function as one. According to (Williams, 2005, p. 2) â€Å"the contemporary nation-state is characterized by jurisdiction over territory, a political and administrative apparatus and the state recognizes no higher constitutional authority than itself. † Besides states, there are also other actors involve in the practice of international relations. Examples are individual actors, organizations, agencies and groups who also can help promote the functions of a state or the whole. According to (Williams, 2005, p. 2) â€Å"because individuals, groups and organizations acting in the name of the state are also sensitive to pressures and constraints other than international ones, including elite maintenance, electoral politics, public opinion, pressure group activities, ideological preferences, and bureaucratic politics. † In the course of history, there also had been developments in the international arena that paved the way for the emergence of transnational actors. Examples of these actors are transnational corporations and non-governmental organizations. They seek to promote the overall endeavors in the international arena. At the same time, as the world becomes more globalized, the tendency is there is a deeper avenue for them to promote their interests in the international arena. In the course of history, there had been tendencies of shifting of actor concentration in the international arena. That is why it is good to compare and contrast each actor’s importance in the practice of international relations. Looking at it, actor’s in international relations are primarily concerned in promoting their own interests. These interests are beneficial in the overall aim of the actor for its continued growth and sustenance. Looking at the point of view of interests, there are differences present between different actors in the international arena. A state may pursue its interest based on its overall welfare and capabilities. On the other hand, it may be different among other actors in international arena. An NGO may promote its interests founded on the protection of its ideology and welfare of its aim. Also, for transnational corporation, they seek to promote interests that are centered in creating benefits that would enhance their status in the international arena. With regards to relationship between nations, actors in international relations seek different mechanisms that will create an enhanced cooperation among different actors depending on the issue and interests being talked about. In addition, there has been an expansion of different theoretical paradigms to explain and argue on how actors affect different issues in the international arena. Thus, actors contribute greatly to the practice of international relations. There had been different theories and paradigms to suggest how these actors contribute to the overall process in the international arena. Lastly, these actors are primarily motivated due to their individual interests that motivate them to act accordingly. Work Cited T. L Williams. ‘Actors in International Relations. ’ 2005 accessed December 11, 2007; from http://209. 85. 175. 104/search? q=cache:I3UEDQx9zakJ:www. wadsworthmedia. com/marketing/sample_chapters/0534631894. pdf+actors+in+international+relationshl=tlct=clnkcd=1gl=ph.

The Relationship Between The English Legal System And International Law International Law Essay

The Relationship Between The English Legal System And International Law International Law Essay The essay deals with the relationship between the English legal system and international law. Although there is some discrepancy among the two systems, they merge at some points. Looking at the theories around this issue, our domestic legal order seems to follow the dualist approach. Nonetheless, both the attitude of international law towards municipal rules and the approach as regards the law of the nations by the English legal system need to be examined. Even though the international legal machine does not permit a state to use its domestic law as a defence to violation of its international obligations, it does not entirely ignore municipal law rules. This means that there is an overlap between the two systems. Apart from that, by observing the reaction of the English legal system to treaty law it appears that conventions should be domesticated, through transformation, by an Act of Parliament. It should be noted that this is an expression of the dualist approach. In addition, menti on is made to the attitude of our domestic legal system towards customary international law, which tends to be unsteady. Despite the fact that international custom was considered to be incorporated in English law for years, according to recent cases there seems to be a change towards the transformation doctrine. Moreover, though there are areas of international law where the English courts cannot intervene, the law of the nations is not utterly distant from our domestic legal system. As a matter of fact, albeit some differences between the two legal systems they have influence upon each other.    Introduction Nowadays, a close observation of international law will reveal an enormous development in its substance. As a matter of fact, this distinct system of law, which regulates the interrelationship of sovereign states, deals with exceptionally significant matters like human rights, war and international crimes. At this point, a question that might be asked by a person reading regularly the International News section in a British newspaper will be the following: Given the importance of international law and its common interests in certain fields with the English legal system, what is their relationship? Is there an overlap or a gap between them? In order to provide a reliable answer, we should examine the position of municipal law within the international sphere and mainly how the English legal system responds to treaty and customary international law. Theories on the relationship of international and internal law Among other things, scholars attempted to explain the relationship between international and domestic law through various theories. Most persistent have been the theories of monism and of dualism. On the one hand, monists (like Lauterpacht) argue that there is a single legal order with international law at the peak and all national rules below it in the hierarchy.  [1]  In contrast, under the dualist theory supported, supported by Oppenheim and Triepel, international and municipal are two different legal systems existing side by side but operating in different arenas.  [2]  Indeed, jus gentium is a law between independent states whereas domestic law applies within a state regulating the relations of its citizens with each other and with the executive. Accordingly, international law rules to be considered have to be domesticated through adoption or transformation by the national legislature. In general, it seems that various countries have adopted one or the other doctrine with many common law countries supporting the dualist view while civilian systems subscribe to the monist school of thought. Nevertheless, there are elements of both perspectives in the jurisprudence of many states. Therefore, the opposing schools of dualism and monism do not adequately reflect actual state practice.  [3]  Specifically, Fitzmaurice characterizes the monist-dualist controversy as unreal and artificial since each system is supreme in its own field.  [4]   Even though the English legal system tends to employ the dualist approach  [5]  , before forming a whether or not it never meets the law of the nations, an assessment of their attitude towards each other ought to be conducted. The position of English-municipal rules in international law Undoubtedly, in the practice of international courts and tribunals there is a dividing line between international and domestic law. They have established principles regarding the application of municipal law within the international legal system. As a general rule, a state cannot justify the violation of its international obligations by relying upon its domestic legal situation.  [6]  This provision has been established by state practice and decided cases. To start with, the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 (hereafter VCLT) states that a party may not invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to perform a treaty.  [7]  In addition, non-compliance with municipal law rules on the competence to make treaties may not generally be invoked by a state to invalidate its consent to a convention, except if the infringement of its domestic law in question is manifest and concerned a rule of fundamental importance.  [8]   Apart from that, case-law illustrates the above principle. For instance, in the Alabama Claims Arbitration  [9]  , albeit the absence of British legislation necessary to intervene with the private construction and sailing of the ship concerned, Great Britain violated its obligations as a neutral in the United States Civil War by allowing the departure to occur. Further, reference should be made to the decision of the International Court of Justice in the Applicability of the Obligation to Arbitrate under Article 21 of the UN Headquarters Agreement of 26 June 1947  [10]  , where it was emphasized that the fundamental principle of international law is that international law prevails over domestic law.  [11]  This was re-affirmed in the La Grand  [12]  case, where the US procedural default rule could not affect the liability of the USA for the breach of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963. Besides, it is obvious that there is a general duty for states to bring domestic law into conformity with international obligations. As shown in the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations  [13]  case, international law rules can be translated into internal law by any method that the domestic jurisdiction of states wishes to apply. Even a failure to bring municipal law into line with its international obligations is not in itself a direct contravention of international law and a violation occurs only when the state concerned could not fulfil its obligations on a specific occasion.  [14]   Additionally, it must be noted that international law cannot entirely ignore municipal law which plays a crucial role in the operation of the international legal machine.  [15]  We should not forget that domestic law may be used as evidence of international custom leading to the growth of this source. There have been occasions that were decided solely on the basis of the municipal law of a particular case.  [16]  What is more, in the case of Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia  [17]  it was underlined that domestic court decisions and legislative measures may comprise evidence of conduct by the state concerned which can essentially create international responsibility. As a result, internal law rules have numerous functions on the international plane and they should not be utterly marginalized. The attitude of English law to international law Aside from the response of the international legal apparatus to municipal rules, it is more essential to take note of the approach of the English legal system to the law of nations in our attempt to find whether they have a hidden meeting place. It is inevitable that the escalating permeation of international legal rules within domestic systems influences the way English law reacts to jus gentium. The next two sections pertaining to the status of international treaties and customary law in our domestic system will help us discover if the two systems merge. National legal systems are free to select how they implement these two sources of international law and their choice of materials varies greatly.  [18]  It is worth mentioning that there is a dichotomy between the rule for treaties and that for customary law, surrounding the application of international law by English courts.  [19]   Treaty Law Approach In England, the fact that the conclusion of treaties is within the prerogative of the Crown determines the way that treaty law is approached. There is no doubt that in the absence of a transformation doctrine, which leads to the conversion of international law into municipal law by an Act of Parliament, the executive would be able to legislate without the legislature.  [20]  This doctrine is an expression of the dualist position, separating the two systems of law and requiring the translation of treaties into domestic legislation.  [21]   One of the first cases establishing that a treaty cannot adversely impact private law rights unless it has been made a part of British law by Parliament is the Parlement Belge case.  [22]  This principle was reinforced in the International Tin Council Case  [23]  where Lord Oliver clarified that a treaty is not part of English law unless and until it has been incorporated into the law by legislation.  [24]  On the other hand, Jennings criticizes the doctrine in the above judgment because it underestimates the role of international law and creates a distance between the two systems.  [25]  Although only treaties in relation to the conduct of war and cession do not require transformation, Fox points out that the House of Lords in R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate, ex. Parte Pinochet Ugarte (No. 3)  [26]  disregarded such a constitutional principle and implemented in English law unincorporated treaty obligations on the immunity of the Former Head of State.  [27]   Furthermore, the distinct reaction of the English legal system to the European Convention on Human Rights (hereafter ECHR) and to binding decisions of the United Nations should be examined. Since 1974, English courts have consistently taken ECHR into account while applying statutes, though it was unincorporated.  [28]  Andrew Cunningham maintains that such an approach is not well justified when other unincorporated conventions and instruments are sidestepped.  [29]  Nonetheless, an obscure point that should be elucidated is that the English legal system did not abandon dualism in human rights cases as it insists that an unincorporated treaty cannot prevail over a contradicting statute.  [30]  Even after the enactment of the Human Rights Act 1998 which incorporated the ECHR, the validity of any incompatible primary legislation might not be affected given the provision in section 3(1). As regards the resolutions of the Security Council, the UK has implemented the United Nat ions Act 1946. It is evident that even Security Council decisions are not self-executing and in the case of UN sanctions they can be only enforced as a consequence of this piece of domestic legislation with which the Crown can adopt Orders in Council. It is noteworthy that in spite of the Ponsonby rule, where signed treaties subject to ratification, acceptance, approval or accession have to be laid before Parliament at least twenty-one days before any of these actions is taken, the UK practice suggests that a ratified treaty becomes effective only in international law. Apparently, the English legal system is hesitant to apply directly treaty law in its municipal law. Yet, it is at least accepted that the text of Conventions can be used as an aid to statutory interpretation. Admittedly, in the Salomon  [31]  case it was made clear that the Crown does not intend to break an international treaty and the convention might be utilised when domestic legislation is ambiguous. The above principle was strengthened when Lord Diplock in Fothergill v Monarch Airlines  [32]  encouraged the courts to use the rules for interpretation of unincorporated treaties in the VCLT. Despite this, Gardiner has observed that the judiciary in England is not eager to apply the Vienna rules systematically, indicating a reluctance to acknowledge the importance of international law in the domestic system.  [33]   Customary International Law Approach Moreover, we need to analyse the status of customary international law in the English legal system to find out its relationship with the law of nations. The decided cases illuminate that the attitude of our domestic system towards customary international law is in a state of flux. Initially, the dominant British approach to international custom was the doctrine of incorporation where customary rules are regarded part of the land. According to Lord Talbot in Buvot v Barbuit  [34]  the law of nations in its full extent was part of the law of England. This principle was restated twenty-seven years later by Lord Mansfield in Triquet v Bath.  [35]   On the contrary, nineteenth century cases appear to displace the doctrine of incorporation by that of transformation.  [36]  In fact, the case of R v Keyn  [37]  demonstrates that a customary rule can become a rule of English law only if it is translated into the latter by statute or a judicial decision. Conversely, this judgment is considered to be equivocal since it dealt primarily with the existence of a rule of international law relating to jurisdiction in the territorial sea.  [38]  Mention should be also made to Lord Atkins speech in Chung Chi Cheung v The King  [39]  where he highlighted that international law is invalid unless adopted by the English law.  [40]  However, O Keefe claims that Lord Atkins statement did not mean that customary international law was not part of our municipal law.  [41]  Instead, his Lordship tried to pass the message that international custom does not take precedence over English law and it is admitted in our domestic legal system where it can play a vital role. It is axiomatic that the approach of the English judiciary to customary international law is relatively unstable. Although, Lord Denning followed the dualistic-transformation doctrine in R v Secretary of State for the Home Department ex parte Thakrar  [42]  , he changed his mind in Trendtex Trading Corporation Ltd v Central Bank of Nigeria  [43]  where he adopted the incorporation approach. This was because he believed that jus gentium does not recognise stare decisis and the latter doctrine would help English law to react to the frequent changes that customary international law undergoes. White feels that transformation is inflexible and the decision in Trendtex is welcome as it helps English courts to be more responsive to international law.  [44]  Yet, it ought to be clarified that in a case of conflict between international custom and an Act of Parliament, the statute prevails.  [45]   On balance, by bearing in mind the seminal decision in Trendtex which was followed by Maclaine Watson v Department of Trade and Industry  [46]  , OKeefe correctly deduces that dualism is the principal principle in English law which just permits customary international law a limited direct applicability.  [47]  Alternatively, in the light of recent cases he might have second thoughts for his conclusion. In particular, Lord Bingham in R v Jones  [48]  was unwilling to accept that international law is a part of our domestic legal system. As an alternative, he preferred that perspective expressed by Brierly that international law is one of the sources of English law.  [49]  Despite the fact that it was acknowledged that international custom may be assimilated into domestic criminal law, the incorporation approach was not applied to the international law crime of aggression.  [50]  Aside from this, in Al-Haq v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs   [51]  Cranston J recognised that customary international law applied in municipal law without transposition is inconsistent with our dualist system.  [52]   Consequently, it is clear that the question whether international custom ought to be incorporated into domestic law is tremendously complicated and according to Pill LJ is not susceptible to a simple or general answer.  [53]  Obviously, there are doubts even about the restricted direct applicability of customary international law in the English legal system. With regard to the role of the English judiciary, Capps supports that it acts as a gatekeeper between the international and our domestic legal order.  [54]   Non-justiciability issue and the relation of executive and judiciary A brief reference on the doctrine of non-justiciability will explain why the domestic legal system might be distant from the international legal order. It is inescapable that there might be questions of international law that English courts are not competent to answer. For example, in Buttes Gas and Oil Co v Hammer (No. 3)  [55]  , which concerned a dispute about the territorial waters of Sharjah in the Persia Gulf, an English court did not have the judicial standards to judge the issues of international law. Lord Wilberforce stressed the principle of judicial restraint in adjudicating upon the acts of foreign sovereign states.  [56]  Nevertheless, the non-justiciability rule is subject to exceptions. It is unavoidably inapplicable in instances relating to the transactions of foreign states which infringe international law. In illustration, the case of Kuwait Airways Corporation v Iraqi Airways Company  [57]  showed that an English court could not ignore a breach of inter national law committed by Iraq against Kuwait as far as the violation was acknowledged.  [58]   It should not be omitted that the special nature of international law is reflected in the practice of the British courts which will defer to the executive on certain factual issues. The courts need to seek the guidance of the Foreign Office which produces certificates on the determination of a number of topics such as the sovereign status of a foreign state, the recognition of governments, the commencement and termination of a state of war against another country and the incidence of diplomatic immunity.  [59]  Such certificates are conclusive when they are unambiguous as to facts based on the one voice doctrine where the judiciary and the executive ought to follow the same line on matters relating to foreign affairs.  [60]  In the case of R v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, ex parte Trawnik  [61]  it was maintained that a certificate under the State Immunity Act 1978 is not subject to judicial review unless it constitutes a nullity. On the other hand, it is worth noting that the courts may sometimes go outside the information given in the Foreign Office certificate in their attempt to resolve the issue before them. This was proved in the case of Re Al-Fin Corporations Patent  [62]  where it was held that Foreign Office certificates are not considered as conclusive in the interpretation of statutes or the construction of documents. Conclusion In conclusion, it is plain that there are numerous difficulties raised in this complex area of the interaction of international and municipal law. Nevertheless, the person reading the International News section in a British newspaper will realise that in spite of the preference shown to the dualist approach by the English legal system and its various differences with the international legal apparatus, the two systems trust each other and have some meeting places. As we have seen, the international legal machine takes heed of municipal rules and at the same time in the United Kingdom judicial notice is taken of the rules of public international law. Even though treaty and customary international law need to be exchanged to domestic currency, the English legal order and the law of nations are not completely distinct legal systems and indisputably influence each other. A happy relationship exists between international and domestic law but it will always experience changes.

Motivation And Vocabulary Learning

Motivation And Vocabulary Learning In current time the demand of learning English is rising tremendously due to lingua franca nature of this language in EFL context which refers to student who study English in non-English language society and ESL who study English in an environment that their mother tongue is English; therefore, so many attention has been given to this field because of economical and educational purposes. Back in the days, during methods era and especially in learning-centered methods the lack of explicit focus on grammar cause the vocabulary to gain an important role. They believe that vocabulary cause better comprehension and with this achievement there will be a language development (Kumaravadivelu, 2008). Although with death of method, this component of language is not dead yet, and it still has an important role in current classes with different styles of teaching. In Richards and Renandya (2002) the importance of this fact has been expressed as in the past , vocabulary teaching and learning were often given little priority in second language programs, but recently there has been a renewed interest in the nature of vocabulary and its role in learning and teaching (p.255). 1. a. the problems that students have in different tasks Many linguists define language as a sign system (Hudson, 2000), which consist of lexicon and grammar. According to Hudson, lexicon refers to mental dictionary. And we have different approaches on vocabulary learning that we will study them in detail on following sections. One of them is Lexical approach, in this approach the focus and emphasis is not on the grammar, syntax and structure but on the lexis or word and word combinations (Richards Rodgers, 2006). Most of these approaches and methods isolating words from the context and teach them explicitly as a single unit or compound (prefabricated) unit, but the problem will come up when the learner wants to use it; they can not place it appropriately in correct situations. For example the word reticent means quiet but the place and the context of using this word is not in the supermarket rather it is in the academic places such as university and college; an English learner will memorize this word and use it when she/he wants to talk to a native sales person or in imaginary role play activity with out awareness of authentic use of it that will cause low motivation. Because when the native speakers feel the lack of language competency they will avoid continuing the conversation. Other problems that can be find in the realm of vocabulary learning / teaching is the use of complicated words by the teacher in the classes which are not appropriate for the students in basic or intermediate levels. According to my own experience and observation, so many EFL classes experience this atmosphere which makes the learners anxious. One of the main reasons for that is the practice of teachers themselves, when a teacher with good general knowledge of English teaches an intermediate students for a year he /she will lose some of his knowledge according to lack of practice then they will bring that practice into their classes. The supervisor of that institute was happy and when the question has been asked about this problem he mentioned Krashens i + 1 hypothesis, but he didnt bring into consideration the level of 1 is not determined yet and how harmful it can be for learners. The mentioned problems make the learners overwhelmed and bewildered on how, when and where to use the words. Should they use the writing words (the words that are usually used in writing) in the speaking tasks or use the speaking words in the writing tasks? This will cause debilitative anxiety and low self-efficacy which refers to external factors. The word self-efficacy is defined in Williams and Burden (1997) as students beliefs about their capabilities to apply effectively the knowledge and skills they already possess and thereby learn new cognitive skill (p.129). When the learners are confused and can not recognize which word to select or when to use the special word, they will refer it to task difficulty (Williams Burden, 1997).This low self-efficacy will cause low motivation (which will be studied in detail in the Body of this paper), and when the learners are not motivated they give up practicing and they think that the task is hard but in reality the absence of practice which is due to low motivation caused that. And when this happen, it not only influence their vocabulary knowledge but also it plays a significant role on other four skills, because when the knowledge of vocabulary is low, the comprehension will be low so the pr oduction. Richards and Renandya (2002) express vocabulary is core component of language proficiency and provides much of the basis for how well learners speak, listen, read and write (p.255). Also in their book they mentioned with out the good knowledge of vocabulary and strategies for learning new vocabulary, learners can not progress in the way that their capabilities are and this will cause low motivation then they wont participate in learning opportunities around them such as listening to news, watching movies, listening to the native speaker and using the language in different context(Richards and Renandya ,2002). 1. b. passive and active vocabulary learning There are generally two types of vocabulary in mind, passive and active (Heaton, 1990). By passive vocabulary he refers to reading and listening words (comprehensive). Hunt and Beglar in the book of Richards Renandya (2002) classify it as incidental learning in the long run, most words in both first and second languages are probably learned incidentally, through extensive reading and listening (p.259). We may read so many articles, books, newspapers and texts included different classes of words but it is not possible to use those words in our speaking and writing (production). The emphasis is on speaking because during the utterance we have less time for processing the new words and the speaker tries to use safe words which have been proved before. The other group is active vocabulary. In this group we have writing and speaking words (productive) that refers to the word we use in our speaking and writing so the classification is listening: passive/spoken, reading: passive/written, speaking: active/spoken and writing: active/written(Heaton , 1990, P.51). It is worth mentioning that the amount of words that we comprehended is much larger than the words that we produced.in the research of Oxford Crookall (1990) declared that spoken vocabulary is often smaller than written vocabulary, which is in turn generally smaller than receptive vocabulary (p.23).from that statement they conclude that proficiency in speaking is more difficult for the student to achieve than writing and writing is harder than reading and listening ( Oxford Crookall, 1990). According to my own experience, one of my classes memorized and practiced the 504 essential words but they hardly used those words in their production. The ideal goal for the learners is shifting from passive knowledge of vocabulary to active knowledge of vocabulary and create an atmosphere for better fluency with the activated vocabulary .for the fluency Richards renandya (2002) suggest that fluency is partly depends on developing sight vocabulary through extensive reading and studying high-frequency vocabulary(p.262) and also they expressed that fluency is cyclic use of already known words so the students can produce an utterance without hesitation(Richards and renandya,2002). To achieve these goal different variables should be taken into consideration such as time, books, methods of teaching, students back ground knowledge and so on. Mentioned variables will effect the learners motivation. For example in that class if the time and duration had been extended the result would have been different. Students could use those words so they didnt think about the hardness of the task (external, task difficulty) and they could have higher self- efficacy and better motivation. And they could realize that vocabulary learning is a formidable and complex life-long task (Stahl Nagy, 2006). There is a mutual relationship between motivation and vocabulary learning so when the learners are motivated they will learn more vocabulary and when they learn more vocabulary they will be more motivated, like a cycle. 1. C. absence of enough review of related literature About the title of this paper there are only very few information, studies and review of related literature. the reason for that is scholars and researchers usually consider vocabulary as part of reading skill , Deng (2010) declare motivation for vocabulary learning is different from motivation for reading , so the motivation of vocabulary should be studied separately (p.4). 2. Body There are six categories in the dimensions of vocabulary learning: help-seeking, morphology, context, dictionary use, spelling and phonology (Deng, 2010). The help-seeking is very important in the process of vocabulary learning among EFL students. When the learners dont t know the meaning of the word they will ask for it from the other peer or authority such as teachers or parents (this will be analyzed in detail in the vocabulary learning strategies). Research on this field show that students usually use this strategy rather than checking dictionary because it is easier and to the point, but it has down side too, using dictionary is a skill and when they get use to it they are exposed to more vocabulary learning and authentic pronunciation. In Richards renandya (2002) the importance of dictionary is declared through bilingual dictionaries have been found to result in vocabulary learning (p.263); they also proposed the advantages of bilingual dictionaries over monolingual one. .help-seeking shows that the students are concern about their studies so they have facilitative anxiety. When they realize the meaning, they will be more motiva ted due to understanding the concept of the text. The second category for vocabulary learning is morphology. Hudson (2000) defines morphology as concern the classes of morphemes, and their occurrence in sentences and combination as words (p.8). We can study morphemes in two ways, based on meaning and based on the form with in two subparts, grammatical and lexical morphemes (Hudson, 2000). Study has shown that the student awareness on this division and the characteristic of each grammatical and lexical morpheme such as concreteness, frequency, open-set membership will help them to overcome the difficulty of the task .as an example, when the learners can distinguish between stem, root, suffix and prefix they not only will realize the meaning and function of that word but also they can use this technique to overcome some other hard and complicated task in the realm of vocabulary learning. In this situation learners become more self- actualized in result they will consider themselves as part of the process and they dont rely on external factors (luck, difficulty of the task) so they will have a higher motivation. Williams Burden (1997) declare that the greater the value that individuals attached to the accomplishment or involvement in an activity the more highly motivated they will be both to engage in it initially and later to put sustained effort into succeeding in the activity(p.125). In fact, many examinations have been taken in the morphology and motivation realm, Deng (2010) examined the motivation of morphological knowledge by measuring students motivation to notice and manipulate word parts that contribute to word meanings (p.11). The result of this study shows the significant relationship between motivation and morphological awareness. Another factor which causes lack of motivation is accessibility to morphemes in our lexicon. Lexicon is mental dictionary of the morphemes and signs (Hudson, 2000). Access to morpheme in our lexicon occurs by rhyme, initial sound, and synonym, rough opposite, semantic features, context of occurrence, part of speech and spelling( Hudson, 2000, p.74). Another way for Vocabulary learning is learning the word with in text itself. Contextualization occurs when the unknown meaning of the word is guessed by the reader according to other words and phrases. Contextual use refers to understanding word meanings by scrutinizing surrounding context, including preceding or succeeding phrases and sentences that provide syntactic and semantic cues (Deng, 2010, P.11), it is worth mentioning that this technique is more suitable for advanced learners because vocabulary learning includes learning collocations, associations, and related morphological as well as grammatical patterns ; considering all these elements for guessing the meaning is not possible for basic learners(Richards renandya, 2003). This is very useful technique for the learners to enhance their self-efficacy as well. When they realize that they do not need to know the meaning of all the words to overcome the test or task difficulty, they will see an open window of opportunity for l earning. On the other hand Kelly (1990) declared that unless the context is very constrained, which is relatively rare occurrence or unless there is a relationship with the known word identifiable on the basis of form and supported by context, there is little chance of guessing the correct meaning (p.203). We can learn and access the vocabulary in lexicon with phonology and phonological process. In phonological process the learner can keep the word in the mind by the sound of it and also can have an access to the lexicon by the same application. The Other type is spelling, Deng (2010) presents that spelling is specified as sub category of students motivation in vocabulary learning because spelling helps to learn new vocabulary (p.11). Spelling influences conceptualizations of vocabulary learning (Ehri Wilce, 1986). Through the spelling vocabulary l the image of the words can be established in the mind better than when the spelling is not known and this gives the learner stronger self -esteem. Richards Renandya (2002) express that language -focused instruction includes focusing on the pronunciation and spelling of words; deliberately learning the meaning of a word; memorizing collocations, phrases or sentences containing a word and being corrected for incorrect use of words(p.270). 2. a. types of motivation and vocabulary learning So far we realized that how motivation is related to the vocabulary learning. In this section, we consider types of motivation and the relationship with vocabulary learning. Motivation refers to goal-directed behavior (Masgoret and Gardner, 2003, p.128). It has been studied in different psychological schools of thought such as behaviorist view, cognitivist view and social constructivist view. In behaviorist point of view the concept of motivation is tied to rewards and external factors. Although the behaviorist point of view has been rejected but it can not be fully rejected; some times it plays an important role in vocabulary leaning. The external feedback that learners get will motivate them to continue the vocabulary learning tasks. Some scholars emphasis on the effect of feedback the effort students put into their work outside of class needs to be acknowledged with sufficient feedback to make them feel that the effort was worthwhile in moving them toward their goal (capturing and directing, 1997, p.4 ).so by giving them immediate feedback they will be more motivated in expansion of vocabulary learning. And, William and Burden (1997) declared that behavioral psychologist were the first to recognize the power of feedback as a motivating influence (p. 134). Other perspectives such as achievement motivation can be helpful in vocabulary learning. But it has two phases, one when the learner is highly motivated to accomplish the vocabulary task for external factors such as achieving the first place in the class or for their parents satisfaction. The second phase which is debilitative refers to the situations when the learner avoids participating in the task due to stressful nature of that activity. In result, we can see that the early psychologist approaches toward motivation is simple and deficient. Although there are not enough review of literature in the area of vocabulary learning and motivation but it can be studied in the Gardners integrative and instrumenta l orientation. Masgoret and Gardner (2003) Define integrative orientation as integration refers to an openness to identify, at least in part, with another language community (p.126). In integrative orientation the EFL learners want to be part of the English language community, and they want to integrate themselves with the English culture. This type of orientation is highly related to vocabulary learning. When learners want to be part of the community and they are highly motivated, they should speak or write in the manner that native speaker does. This will cause the learner to focus on expansion of vocabulary, besides using the words in appropriate place as mentioned on the introduction part of this paper. Also Masgoret and Gardener emphasis the adaption of word sounds, pronunciations, word orders, and other behavioral and cognitive features (Masgoret and Gardner, 2003). There are six variables included in the measure of integrative motivation which the main component, consists of attitude, interests and integrative orientation (William Burden, 1997). Attitudes toward the learning situation refer to the individuals reaction to anything associated with the immediate context in which the language is taught (Masgoret and Gardner, 2003, p.127).also Deng which is one of the main references of this paper, investigates motivation particularly attitude in vocabulary learning and defines it as evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor (Deng, 2010, p.8). Sometimes the students are not interested in the target language group but they can be open to all groups (Masgort and Gardner, 2003); in the case of interest, they make themselves involved in vocabulary learning and participate in different tasks which cause further learning. The other type is instrumental orientation; which has less effect on the vocabulary learning compare to integrative orientation. When the learners want to overcome the difficulty of the text, task or exam for achieving a passing mark, financial rewards, furthering a career or gaining promotion they usually have instrumental orientation (William Burden, 1997). This kind of motivation is applicable to vocabulary learning too. When the learners want to get passing mark on an English test they should study appropriate vocabulary for achieving that goal and it is only and only for that purpose. The other approaches toward motivation are cognitive and social constructivist. In cognitive psychologist approach, the most important part is the choice that learners have on their actions (William and Burden, 1997). And in the social constructivist perspectives , the motivation is because of social factors so when one person is motivated, he/she will continue to achieve the goal and the way they are satisfied is different from person to person( William Burden, 1997). There are other perspectives to motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic. In the researches on the vocabulary learning both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations play an important role. But intrinsic motivation which in William and Burden (1997) book has been defined as experience of doing something that generates interest and enjoyment, and the reason for performing the activity lies within the activity itself (p.123) is very important for the vocabulary learning. Because the learners are interested in the task or vocabular y learning, so they try more to get their goals, and they wont give up easily. 2. b. the complexity of words Some times the complexity of words may cause lack of motivation and because there is a mutual relationship between them, it may cause the student to give up the learning. According to Nagy and Scott there are five aspects of vocabulary complexity the first one is incremental- knowing which Deng (2010) defines it as knowing a word is not a matter of all- or- nothing, but incremental process based on small scales (p.9). So it means that the vocabulary knowledge is additive. The learner shouldnt be overwhelmed and unmotivated due to complex nature of vocabulary learning; when they see that they can add to their base knowledge. The second one is multidimensionality-word that consists of grammar, conceptual meaning and morphology which has been explained in the previous sections. Polysemy -words that Yule (1985) defines it as two or more words with the same form and related meanings (p.107). Also yule gives a good example of run that can relate to person or water. When the learner face t his complexity he/she can be bewildered, to avoid this ambiguity different strategies are needed that will be discussed in the following section. The other type is interrelatedness words that Deng explain it with the example of understanding the word bread which is related to understanding of other related words such as powder and wheat (Deng, 2010). And the last one is heterogeneity-word that refers to word class. For example some words are abstract like love and some words are concrete like chair, understanding these two level words are different and the abstract words may cause anxiety among EFL learner and especially between younger ages. Another perspective to words is the division of word knowledge to receptive and productive. Richards Renandya (2002) define the receptive knowledge as one of the aspects of knowledge through reading and listening, and productive knowledge means being able to use in speaking and writing (p.261). The concept of word knowledge is closely related to the passive and active vocabulary. Zhong in his research explain the concept of receptive-productive word as the mastery level of vocabulary knowledge reflected in the learners comprehension and production abilities (p.118) and also in the same paper he demonstrate progressive process of learning a word. The reason that I brought these parts of word and vocabulary learning in to this paper is that in conclusion part we will see there is a mutual relation between learning vocabulary and motivation. According to Zhong the first dimension is partial -precise dimension, it shows the knowledge moves from recognition to vague understanding of the meaning and later to the mastery of precise comprehension (p.118). The second is depth dimension which is the quality of knowing word and the last dimension is receptive and productive dimension. 2. c. vocabulary learning strategies In order to simplify the complexity of the word and vocabulary learning that has a significant role on student anxiety and motivation, some strategies are needed. When the learners are motivated they will seek some ways for better understanding of the text or making use of these strategies for longer retention of words. For this purpose in Richards and Renandya there is a great emphasis on these strategies for inferring words from context as well as those which can help learner retain the meaning (RichardsRenandya,2002). There are different categorizations for vocabulary learning strategies according to different researchers. Oxford Crookall divided the techniques for vocabulary learning in to four categories decontextualizing technique that extract the word from the context completely which help the learners remember how the word is used as a part of language; semi- contextualizing in this technique the new word is related to the learners already known word but still they are not part of the context; the third one is contextualizing technique that the word will be studied in communicative context; and the last one is adaptable that reinforce other techniques (Oxford Crookall , 1990). Decontextualizing technique consists of word lists that are divided into unpaired list and paired list, flashcards and conventional dictionary use; semi contextualizing which is consisted of words grouping ,visual imaginary ,key word ,physical sensation and semantic mapping; contextualizing technique that is processed with in the four skills in general English proficiency; and the last one , adaptable technique which they use structured reviewing (Oxford Crookall, 1990). In the Asgaris research, the division is based on Schmitt classification, and he divides it in discovery strategies and consolidation strategies with five sub- categories consists of determination, social, memory ,cognitive and metacognitive strategies ( Asgari,2010). In the research that has been done by Asgari, she tries to related the learning strategies to vocabulary learning ,although it is acceptable but more specification is needed , because a specific classification for vocabulary learning strategies has been given. Other strategies which are related to learning in general term, can be associated to vocabulary learning as well , such as circumlocution when we describe the unknown word for the listener ; using prefabricated pattern , word coinage , approximation and so on (William Burden, 1997).the mentioned techniques are part of the compensatory strategy, which is crucial for learner productive vocabulary knowledge. When they use this type of strategy they will continue the production and this will cause low anxiety and high degree of motivation. 3. Conclusion So far different aspects of motivation and vocabulary learning have been investigated, the problems that EFL learners have in the classes and generally as the process of learning the second or foreign language beside the kinds of motivation and kinds of words. Also different strategies have been mentioned to compensate the above problems. The reason for this division is first there is not enough literature on this specific subject and second from my own understanding there are mutual relationship between vocabulary learning and motivation. By that I mean when the learners are motivated they will learn vocabulary better and when they learn a word they will be more motivated. So the reason for bringing all the above problems, kinds and strategies is that they are like a chain and they are related to each other. Deng in his research found no difference between male and female in motivation for vocabulary learning and he found a significant relationship between vocabulary learning and mo tivation (Deng, 2010).and also Fernandez Terrazas (2012) in their research found that there is a significant positive relationship between the level of motivation and receptive vocabulary tests grade (p.49). so by considering the level of motivation we can improve vocabulary learning among the EFL learners.

The Downfall Of Macbeth In Mac :: essays research papers

People and ideas can greatly affect the outcome of a person's life, determining whether the outcome will be successful or disastrous. Decisions and actions can also influence outcome. This is the case in Macbeth. Many factors cause the ruin of Macbeth and for that reason, all the blame for his downfall cannot be placed on Macbeth himself, despite the fact that he is the one that commits or has people commit the murders which lead to his downfall. Lady Macbeth's encouragement and convincing lead Macbeth to take the first step towards his destruction. The witches and their prophecies are equally accountable, since the witches reveal their predictions to Macbeth, giving him a glimpse into his future. This glimpse represents the beginning of the end of his life. Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, as well as the witches and their prophecies are all responsible for Macbeth's downfall.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The witches are responsible for the downfall of Macbeth because they are the ones which reveal the prophecies to Macbeth. 1. Witch. All hail, Macbeth! Hail to thee, Thane of Glamis! 2. Witch. All hail, Macbeth! Hail to thee, Thane of Cawdor! 3. Witch. All hail, Macbeth, that shalt be King here- after!1 If Macbeth had never encountered the witches, they would never have revealed the prophecies to him. He would have become the Thane of Cawdor, and he would never have even considered the idea of making himself the King of Scotland. It would have remained a fantasy that would probably never have come true in the way that it did. The witches are the ones who allow Macbeth to discover his future, and by doing this, they give him the opportunity to consider making the prophecy come true. The only way to do this is to murder Duncan, the present King of Scotland. At first he is reluctant to do so. Lady Macbeth points out that he has the perfect opportunity, since the King will be spending the night at their castle, Inverness. Macbeth's conscience, however, is holding him back from committing the murder. He's here in double trust: First, as I am his kinsman and his subject, Strong both against the deed; then as his host, Who should against his murderer shut the door. Not bear the knife myself. (I. Vii. ll 12-16) He realizes that he has a responsibility to Duncan to protect him from a murderer and not to actually murder Duncan himself. Macbeth is also supposed to be loyal to the king, especially since he is a relative and a subject.

We Must Support Our Troops in Iraq Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive W

We Must Support Our Troops in Iraq Most Americans haven't really changed all that much over the past three years. Going to class, work or keeping up with our own personal lives is what mostly preoccupies our daily existence. The majority of us simply don't have time to contemplate the actions currently being taken on the other side of the world. That's not to say that we haven't been inundated with news, pictures and videos of the bloodshed in Iraq. We know what goes on, but as most of us aren't directly involved in the war, our reactions to the news of the violence have, over time, become indifferent. While the news of free, democratic elections lift our hopes, daily reports of the cost, in lives and dollars, restore our pessimism. The constant shifts in outlook have created near-apathy among Americans. Most are tired of the prolonged war, and are seeking a just solution. The death toll is now at roughly 2,200, and total casualties are estimated to be well over 16,000. Many politicians have tried to capitalize on the war in Iraq in an effort to change our opinion. I don't ...

Criminal Justice Essay

Dear Sir: As far as I know, the Abstract (also this email’s attachment), is written as the final section of the Paper, after everything is said and done. Because you are the one doing the methods, the analyses, the results, and the discussion, I leave it up to you to key in the two or three remaining sentences for the final Abstract. Hence, the initial Abstract: â€Å"In an attempt to initiate a reliable measure of the levels of perceptions of Criminal Justice Major Undergraduate College Students, this study possibly sharpens the definition of predictive behavior of the students who as respondents were surveyed by use of carefully formulated questionnaires to determine their general perceptions of the U. S. Criminal Justice System, their general perceptions on immigration law, immigration reform, and immigration control, as well as the students’ specific perceptions on the U. S. ’s ongoing Mexican immigration control. To perform comparison, the perception scores were statistically analyzed carrying out correlation test, t-test, and regression analyses tests between the general perception scores versus the specific perception scores. The results showed that   † Thank you very much. Very truly yours, Writer of†32344972† Urgent revision xxx Urgent revision on your â€Å"A STUDY OF UNDERGRADUATE COLLEGE CRIMINAL JUSTICE MAJOR STUDENTS PERCEPTIONS OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM†. Date Revision Deadline Instructions March 19 8:16 March 20 8:16 I am still waiting for the Abstract to be downloaded in a Word document to complete my order. Once again, this was one of the three items I requested in my order. xxx

Dickinson Comparison Poem 112 and 479 Essay

Emily Dickinson is known as one of the most unique and influential poets of all time. Many of her poems are recognized for their deep meanings and dark tones. She often wrote about unconventional themes of death and immortality. Less than a dozen of her eighteen hundred poems were published while she was alive. Today, Dickinson is known as one of the greatest American poets for her eccentric and truth seeking pieces of literature. In Emily Dickinson’s poem 112 she discusses what success feels like depending on your position in life. She expresses how those who are victorious do not see their success or appreciate it. Meanwhile, those who have never achieved success before, truly understand the meaning of real accomplishment. Dickinson talks about Nectar, which is considered by the Greeks and Romans to be the drink that gives them immortality. Once again, she focuses on death and the idea of never dieing. Dickinson goes on to discuss the â€Å"purple host† or soldiers in the Army and how even though they successful captured their opponents flag, they still could not tell her the true meaning of victory. In contrast, the soldiers who had just been defeated lay down, listening to the â€Å"distance strains of triumph† (Dickinson, 2008, p. 1201) from their opponents, they were able acknowledge the meaning of true success. It’s often been said that we cannot fully appreciate success with out first experiencing failure. I think this poem is Emily Dickinson’s way to expressing to the world the significance of success. In her poem 479, Emily Dickinson personifies death and takes the reader on a journey to eternity. The first stanza, â€Å"Because I could not stop for Death – He kindly stopped for me.† (Dickinson, 2008, p. 1214-1215) Dickinson refers to death as a horseman driving a carriage to take her away to die. She then goes on to explain he’s driving very slow as she carefully tries to make peace with her life’s work. Dickinson describes the children and fields of grains she sees as the sun set, symbolizing her life is coming to an end. Emily Dickinson begins to feel cold as she travels towards eternity and her ‘House’ in the ground or grave. She ends the poem very bizarre by saying â€Å"tis, Centuries† (Dickinson, 2008, p. 1214-1215) since she last died, but then says it seems like less than a day since she was taken to eternity. This strange ending leaves the reader wondering about the soul of Emily Dickinson and the truth behind her life and death experiences. In both poem 112 and 479, Dickinson extends her knowledge of life, death, and immortality. I think poem 112 is a very ironic piece of work for her. The poem discusses success and how it is only appreciated after failure. Emily Dickinson was an amazing poet, but didn’t achieve success until after her death. I can’t help but feel she somehow knew her work would not be appreciated until she was gone. Why do you think Emily Dickinson was so plagued by death in her poems? Did she achieve immortality?